Ancient Science
Pliny, the Elder, was a 1st century Roman scholar. His birth date is not exact, but it is widely accepted he lived from 23 to 79 CE – 56 years, which was longer than the average life span at the time. And it seems he led a very full life. His first career was in the Roman Legions, serving in positions of command for nearly 20 years throughout the Roman Empire. During Nero’s reign he became a writer and chronicler, maintaining a low profile in order not to attract the Emperor’s wrath. After Nero’s suicide, Pliny was appointed to a number of different administrative posts for the Emperor Vespasian. His last position was with the Roman Navy and when Mount Vesuvius erupted he was in charge of the efforts to rescue survivors. He personally commanded a rescue operation to find and save a friend who was trapped at the Gulf of Naples. He died in that attempt, either from the toxic air or a heart attack, the evidence is not clear.
What makes Pliny a figure in the study of Colonization Elements, specifically Pseudoscience, is his 37 volume, encyclopedic-like publication – Natural History. There isn’t clear evidence when Pliny began this scholarly work, perhaps when Nero was Emperor, but the majority of the volumes were first published in 77 CE. The remainder were published after his death by his nephew, Pliny the Younger, who he had raised as a son and who assisted him in research and writing.
Natural History is a compilation of all the known information about the world available to Pliny at the time. He did limited ‘field-work’ or research, but rather collected and organized the observations and reports of others. Included were past scholars like Aristotle, but also folklore, legends and fables, along with Pliny’s own superstitions and belief in magic. All of it became credible by being included in what has become known as the world’s first encyclopedia. And because Natural History did, in fact, contain much information that was true and verifiable, it became the core source for a general education for centuries.
The primary affect Natural History had on colonization was establishing in the minds of the populace the images and characteristics of non- and sub-human beings that lived in the unknown reaches of the world. That flawed information was accepted for centuries. And then the unknown world became known. The resulting confusion in the invaders’ minds generally had them refuse reality and react according to their well established understanding of the world and its inhabitants. In other words, regardless of how the Indigenous Peoples appeared, there was this underlying concern about those dangerous creatures described in Natural History.
The prime example of this reaction is the myth of cynocephaly, or Dog-Men. These creatures were depicted as extremely dangerous beasts. Pliny documented this myth and it was of a concern for those invading the lands in the Western Atlantic. Columbus recorded in the journal of his first trip that the islanders had told him of ‘men with dog’s heads’ that lived nearby. One might question that entry, given the language barrier, but whatever the people were saying, Columbus was preconditioned to hear something that wasn’t surprising to him. And in 1519 the Governor of Cuba ordered Hernan Cortes to investigate the presence of Dog-Men during his invasion of the mainland. The point is, the scholarly and fully accepted perception of the Western Atlantic lands during the years of conquest was that it contained fearsome creatures that were a threat to the invaders. Did that alarming data influence the actions taken by the early colonizers in their initial encounters with the Indigenous Peoples? Probably, in some instances.
Pliny’s method of gaining and sharing knowledge by studying the ancient texts may seem strange when compared to the rigorous and strenuous research into ‘primary’ sources that characterizes scholarship today. But, that was the traditional and accepted manner of learning until late in the 15th century when in 1492, Niccolo Leoniceno published, what appears to be, the first article to question Pliny’s information.
Leoniceno was born in Italy in 1428 and died in 1524. He studied both medicine and philosophy and was accomplished in the translation of ancient Greek and Arabic medical texts into Latin. He spent the majority of his career teaching mathematics, philosophy and medicine at the University of Ferrara. It was Leoniceno’s medical training and teaching responsibilities that first prompted him to question and become concerned about the inaccuracies in some of Pliny’s medicinal preparations and suggested treatments. That led him to discover other items that were questionable in subject matters outside of medicine. For instance, Pliny claimed the moon was larger than the earth. Leoniceno felt misinformation of that magnitude needed to be addressed, but he found resistance from scholars and physicians who were interested in protecting the ancient texts and their own reputations. These disagreements continued with public debates and pamphlets until 1509, when the general public’s interest declined and newer information, specifically in the medical and naturalist fields, became more prevalent. And additionally, Leoniceno’s approach of first-hand experience as opposed to reading accounts became a more acceptable manner of education. His primary interest was in factual accuracy because he felt peoples health depended on it.
Pliny’s work was an amazing accomplishment by any standard. The fact that it did reinforce some religious and racial Colonization Practices cannot be blamed entirely on Pliny. Natural History made an impact in the world for 13 centuries, with both good and bad results.